What Is Manufacturing Inspection?
Manufacturing inspection is the systematic measurement and verification of part dimensions, surface conditions, and material properties against engineering drawing requirements. It includes dimensional inspection (CMM — coordinate measuring machine — calipers, micrometers), surface finish measurement (profilometry per ISO 4287), non-contact methods (3D scanning, industrial CT), material testing (hardness per ASTM E18, tensile per ASTM E8), and formal qualification processes like First Article Inspection (FAI) per AS9102. Inspection scope and cost scale with part complexity, tolerance tightness, and industry requirements.
What Is Manufacturing Inspection?
Manufacturing inspection is the bridge between what the drawing specifies and what the shop actually produced. It answers one question: does this part conform? The answer requires measuring physical characteristics — dimensions, geometric tolerances, surface finish, material hardness — against defined acceptance criteria.
Inspection serves three purposes: (1) Conformance verification — proving that parts meet drawing requirements before they ship, (2) Process control — catching manufacturing drift before it produces scrap, and (3) Traceability — creating documentation (inspection reports, material certs, FAI packages) that links each part to its design record, raw material, and manufacturing process.
The depth of inspection varies by industry: a prototype bracket may only need caliper verification of a few key dimensions, while a flight-critical aerospace fitting requires full CMM inspection, FAI per AS9102, Nadcap special process certifications, and statistical process control on production runs.
Inspection Standards
Every inspection process references a standard that defines what to measure, how to measure it, and what constitutes conformance. Specify the applicable standard on your drawing or purchase order to avoid ambiguity.
General Tolerances
Default tolerances for linear/angular dimensions and geometric features when specific tolerances are not called out. Classes: fine (f), medium (m), coarse (c), very coarse (v). Widely used in Europe; specify class in the title block.
GD&T
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: defines datums, form/orientation/location/runout controls, material condition modifiers (MMC/LMC/RFS), and interpretation rules. The US standard for engineering drawing tolerances.
First Article Inspection
Defines FAI requirements for aerospace: Forms 1 (Part Accountability), 2 (Material/Process), 3 (Characteristic Accountability). Required by most AS9100-certified supply chains.
Surface Finish
Defines Ra, Rz, Rq, and other profile roughness parameters. ISO 4287 specifies evaluation lengths and cutoff wavelengths. ASME B46.1 is the US equivalent. Both use the same Ra definition.
Hardness Testing
E18: Rockwell hardness (HRA, HRB, HRC). E92: Vickers hardness (HV). E10: Brinell hardness (HBW). Each specifies indenter type, load, procedure, and reporting requirements.
Quality Management
ISO 9001 defines the QMS framework including inspection requirements (§8.5, §8.6). AS9100 adds aerospace-specific requirements: FAI, configuration management, counterfeit part prevention, and key characteristic identification.
Inspection Methods at a Glance
Side-by-side comparison of accuracy, speed, applications, and typical cost for each inspection method. *Cost estimates are for typical small-to-medium complexity parts; actual costs vary by feature count and tolerance.
| Method | Accuracy | Speed | Suited For | Typical Cost per Part* |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| CMM (Touch Probe) | ±0.001–0.003 mm (±0.00004–0.0001 in.) | Moderate (2–30 min/part) | GD&T verification, hole positions, critical dimensions | $25–$200 |
| CMM (Scanning Probe) | ±0.002–0.005 mm (±0.00008–0.0002 in.) | Moderate (5–45 min/part) | Complex profiles, freeform surfaces, form deviation | $50–$300 |
| Optical / Laser Scanner | ±0.01–0.05 mm (±0.0004–0.002 in.) | Fast (1–10 min/part) | Full-surface deviation maps, reverse engineering, complex geometry | $30–$150 |
| Structured Light | ±0.01–0.03 mm (±0.0004–0.001 in.) | Fast (1–5 min/part) | Sheet metal, plastic parts, color deviation maps | $25–$120 |
| CT Scanning (Industrial) | ±0.01–0.05 mm (±0.0004–0.002 in.) | Slow (15–120 min/part) | Internal features, porosity detection, assemblies, AM parts | $200–$2,000+ |
| Surface Profilometer | Resolution: 0.001 µm (0.00004 µin.) | Fast (1–5 min/feature) | Ra, Rz, Rq measurement per ISO 4287 | $10–$50/feature |
| Hardness Tester | ±1 HRC / ±5 HV typical | Fast (<1 min/reading) | Material verification, heat-treat validation | $5–$25/test |
| Go/No-Go Gage | Per gage tolerance class | Very fast (<10 sec/check) | High-volume hole/thread acceptance, position at MMC | $2–$10/check |
CMM Inspection
The Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) is the workhorse of precision dimensional inspection. A motorized probe (typically Renishaw TP20 or SP25 for scanning) contacts the part surface at programmed points, recording X/Y/Z coordinates in a 3D reference frame established from datum features. The resulting point data is compared against nominal CAD geometry and tolerances per ASME Y14.5 or ISO 1101.
CMM capability depends on the machine class, probe type, environmental control, and measurement strategy. The table below breaks down three tiers.
Shop-Floor CMM
Metrology Lab CMM
Ultra-Precision CMM
Temperature matters
CMM accuracy specs assume 20 °C (68 °F) per ISO 1. A 1 °C deviation on a 200 mm (7.87 in.) aluminum part (CTE 23.6 µm/m·°C) causes ~4.7 µm (0.00019 in.) of thermal expansion — enough to affect measurements at the ±0.005 mm (±0.0002 in.) level. Always let parts temperature-soak before precision measurement (typically 2–4 hours for metals, depending on thermal mass).
Non-Contact Inspection Methods
Non-contact methods capture geometry without touching the part — essential for soft/flexible materials, complex freeform surfaces, or internal features that a CMM probe cannot reach.
3D Laser Scanning
Principle: Triangulation or time-of-flight laser measures millions of surface points per second, generating a point cloud or mesh.
Applications
- Full-part deviation color maps (actual vs. CAD)
- Reverse engineering of legacy parts
- Sheet metal springback analysis
- Castings and forgings first-off inspection
Limitations: Struggles with reflective/transparent surfaces without matte spray. Accuracy lower than CMM for individual point measurements.
Structured Light Scanning
Principle: Projects a pattern of light (stripes or speckle) onto the part and captures deformation with calibrated cameras to reconstruct 3D geometry.
Applications
- Injection-molded and 3D-printed parts (full-surface inspection)
- Weld joint inspection and gap analysis
- Assembly verification (multi-part fit checks)
- Deformation and strain analysis
Limitations: Requires surface texture for pattern recognition. May need multiple scans stitched for complex geometry. Occlusions around deep pockets.
Industrial CT Scanning
Principle: X-ray source and detector rotate around the part, generating cross-sectional slices that reconstruct a full 3D voxel model — including internal features.
Applications
- Internal geometry verification (cooling channels, lattice structures in AM parts)
- Porosity and void detection (DMLS, castings)
- Wall thickness analysis without sectioning
- Assembly inspection — verify internal fit without disassembly
Limitations: Part size limited by X-ray power and detector (typically ≤500 mm for high-resolution scans). Dense metals (steel, titanium) reduce penetration and resolution. High cost per scan.
Surface Finish Measurement
Surface finish (roughness) affects function: sealing surfaces, bearing journals, fatigue life, coating adhesion, and cosmetic appearance all depend on surface texture. The primary measurement is Ra (arithmetic average roughness) per ISO 4287, measured with a contact profilometer using a diamond stylus (2 µm tip radius, per ISO 3274).
Typical CNC-machined surfaces achieve Ra 0.8–3.2 µm (32–125 µin.) as-machined. Ground surfaces: Ra 0.1–0.8 µm (4–32 µin.). Lapped/polished: Ra 0.025–0.1 µm (1–4 µin.).
| Parameter | Definition | Standard | Typical Values (CNC) | Instrument |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ra (Arithmetic Average) | Mean absolute deviation of the profile from the mean line over the evaluation length | ISO 4287, ASME B46.1 | 0.4–3.2 µm (16–125 µin.) as-machined; 0.1–0.4 µm (4–16 µin.) ground | Contact profilometer (stylus) |
| Rz (Max Height) | Average of the five largest peak-to-valley heights within sampling lengths | ISO 4287 | 1.6–12.5 µm (63–500 µin.) as-machined | Contact profilometer (stylus) |
| Rq (RMS Roughness) | Root mean square of profile deviations — more sensitive to peaks/valleys than Ra | ISO 4287, ASME B46.1 | ~1.1 × Ra for Gaussian profiles | Contact profilometer (stylus) |
| Sa (Areal Average) | 3D equivalent of Ra — mean deviation over an area, not a line | ISO 25178 | Application-dependent; used for functional surfaces (seals, bearings) | Optical profilometer (white light / confocal) |
Ra vs. Rz: which to specify?
Ra is the most common callout, but it averages out peaks — a single deep scratch may not affect Ra significantly. For sealing surfaces, bearing bores, and fatigue-critical features, consider specifying both Ra and Rz (or Rmax) to control peak-to-valley excursions. For general machined surfaces, Ra alone is sufficient. See our CNC Tolerances Guide for surface finish by process.
Hardness and Material Testing
Dimensional conformance means nothing if the material is wrong. Hardness testing is the most common in-house material verification — each test takes under 1 minute, is nearly non-destructive, and correlates to tensile strength for most metals. Specify the hardness scale on the drawing (e.g., "28–32 HRC" not just "hardness 28–32").
| Scale | Method | Indenter | Load | Typical Range | Suited For |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rockwell C (HRC) | Depth of penetration under load | 120° diamond cone | 150 kgf (1,471 N) | 20–70 HRC | Hardened steel, tool steel, case-hardened parts |
| Rockwell B (HRB) | Depth of penetration under load | 1/16″ (1.588 mm) steel ball | 100 kgf (981 N) | 20–100 HRB | Soft steels, brass, aluminum alloys |
| Vickers (HV) | Diagonal of pyramidal indent | 136° diamond pyramid | 1–120 kgf | 100–1,000+ HV | Thin sections, coatings, case depth profiles |
| Brinell (HBW) | Diameter of spherical indent | Tungsten carbide ball (various sizes) | 500–3,000 kgf | 60–650 HBW | Castings, forgings, rough surfaces |
| Shore A / D | Penetration depth of spring-loaded pin | Truncated cone (A) or sharp cone (D) | Spring force | 10–95 Shore A; 20–90 Shore D | Rubber, elastomers, soft plastics |
Other Material Tests
Tensile Testing (ASTM E8/E8M)
Destructive test that measures yield strength, UTS, elongation, and reduction of area. Required for material certification on critical structural parts. Typically performed by the material supplier and reported on the mill cert.
Salt Spray / Corrosion Testing (ASTM B117)
Evaluates corrosion resistance of coatings and surface treatments. Parts are exposed to salt fog for a specified duration (e.g., 500 hrs for anodize, 1,000 hrs for powder coat). Results reported as hours to first corrosion.
Metallographic Cross-Section
Destructive examination of grain structure, case depth (for carburized/nitrided parts), coating thickness, and porosity. Sample is sectioned, mounted, polished, and examined under optical microscope at 50–500× magnification.
Positive Material Identification (PMI)
Handheld XRF analyzer verifies alloy composition in seconds without destroying the part. Critical for material traceability in aerospace and nuclear supply chains. Verifies that the correct alloy was used (e.g., 316L vs. 304 stainless).
First Article Inspection (FAI) per AS9102
FAI (First Article Inspection) is a formal, documented verification that the production process produces parts conforming to every requirement in the design record (drawing, model, specs). It is mandatory in most AS9100-certified aerospace supply chains and increasingly adopted in medical device (FDA 21 CFR 820) and automotive (IATF 16949 / PPAP) programs.
AS9102 Rev C defines three forms that together provide complete traceability from raw material to finished, inspected part.
Form 1 — Part Number Accountability
Header information: part number, revision, drawing number, serial number, material spec, process spec, FAI type (full or partial).
Purpose: Establishes traceability. Links the physical part to the design record.
Form 2 — Product Accountability (Raw Material, Processes, Specs)
Lists all raw material certifications (mill certs), special processes (heat treat, anodize, plating), and the specifications they must meet.
Purpose: Verifies that every material and special process in the bill of materials conforms to the design record.
Form 3 — Characteristic Accountability, Verification, and Compatibility
Line-item table of every dimensioned characteristic on the drawing (dimensions, tolerances, GD&T callouts, surface finishes, notes). Each characteristic has: nominal, tolerance, actual measured value, and pass/fail status.
Purpose: The core of FAI. Proves that the production process is capable of meeting every drawing requirement.
When FAI Is Required
- First production run of a new part number
- After a design change (new drawing revision)
- After a process change (new machine, new supplier, new material source)
- After a prolonged production break (typically >2 years)
- When requested by the customer on the PO
Partial (Delta) FAI
- Only re-inspect characteristics affected by the change
- Reference the original full FAI for unchanged characteristics
- Document the change trigger (ECN number, rev change)
- Significantly lower cost and time than full FAI
- Requires approval from the customer quality representative
The QC Workflow: Incoming to Outgoing
A robust inspection process is not a single gate at the end of manufacturing. Quality is verified at four stages — each catches different failure modes.
Incoming Inspection
ISO 9001 §8.4, AS9100 §8.4 (if aerospace)Verify raw material before it enters production.
- Mill cert review (alloy, temper, heat number)
- Material hardness spot check (Rockwell or Brinell)
- Dimensional check on bar/plate stock (±0.5 mm typical)
- Visual inspection for surface defects, corrosion, damage
In-Process Inspection
ISO 9001 §8.5.1 (production control)Monitor critical dimensions during manufacturing to catch drift before final.
- First-piece verification on every setup
- SPC charting on critical dimensions (Cpk ≥1.33 target)
- Tool wear monitoring and offset adjustments
- Surface finish spot checks with portable profilometer
Final Inspection
ISO 9001 §8.6, AS9100 §8.6 (if aerospace)Full dimensional and cosmetic verification before shipping.
- CMM inspection of all critical features per drawing
- Surface finish measurement (Ra per ISO 4287)
- Hardness test (if heat-treated or case-hardened)
- Visual/cosmetic check against acceptance criteria
- Thread gage check (go/no-go per ASME B1.2)
Outgoing QA / Certificate of Conformance
ISO 9001 §8.5.2 (identification and traceability)Documentation package accompanying shipped parts.
- Certificate of Conformance (CoC) per purchase order
- CMM report (PDF or STEP) with actual measured values
- Material certs (mill certs, heat-treat certs)
- Special process certs (anodize, plating, Nadcap if required)
- FAI package (Form 1/2/3) if first production run
How to Specify Inspection on Your Drawing
The inspection requirements on your drawing determine what the supplier measures, how they measure it, and what documentation you receive. Here is exactly what to include.
Inspection level in general notes
Specify the inspection level: "100% INSPECTION OF CRITICAL DIMENSIONS" (prototype), "AQL SAMPLING PER ANSI/ASQ Z1.4, LEVEL II, AQL 1.0" (production lots), or "FIRST ARTICLE INSPECTION PER AS9102" (aerospace). Without this, the supplier applies their internal plan — which may skip the dimensions you care about.
Flag critical dimensions
Mark dimensions that require CMM verification with a KC flag or "INSPECT PER CMM" note. A drawing with 50 dimensions but only 8 flagged for CMM costs far less — typical: $2–$5 per CMM-verified dimension vs. $0.25–$0.50 per caliper-checked feature.
Documentation requirements
State what ships with the parts: "PROVIDE DIMENSIONAL INSPECTION REPORT" (basic), "FAI REPORT PER AS9102 FORMS 1, 2, 3" (aerospace), "MATERIAL CERTIFICATION (MILL CERT)" (traceability), "CERTIFICATE OF CONFORMANCE (CoC)" (compliance statement). Missing this note means you may receive parts with no paperwork.
Surface finish verification
If your drawing calls out Ra values, specify: "VERIFY SURFACE FINISH WITH CONTACT PROFILOMETER PER ISO 4287" on critical surfaces. Without this, the supplier may use a visual comparator or skip Ra verification entirely. Profilometer measurement adds 1–3 min per surface.
GD&T inspection method
For GD&T callouts, specify: "VERIFY POSITION PER CMM" or "FUNCTIONAL GAGE ACCEPTABLE FOR POSITION AT MMC." Position at MMC can be verified with a go/no-go gage — 10× faster than CMM for production. State your preference to avoid the supplier defaulting to the more expensive option.
The 3-tier inspection strategy
For most parts: (1) Block-tolerance features — visual/caliper check, no report. (2) Tight-tolerance features — CMM or micrometer, documented in inspection report. (3) GD&T callouts — CMM with datum alignment, included in FAI. This avoids 100% CMM cost while ensuring critical features are verified.
How Inspection Affects Part Cost
Inspection typically adds 5–15% to total part cost for standard precision parts, and 15–30% for aerospace/medical parts with full FAI and traceability. The following factors drive that cost.
| Factor | Impact | Detail |
|---|---|---|
| Number of inspected features | High | CMM time scales roughly linearly with feature count. A part with 10 features may take 5–10 min; 50 features may take 25–45 min. Specify only critical features for full CMM — use gage or visual for non-critical. |
| Tolerance tightness | High | Features below ±0.025 mm (±0.001 in.) typically require metrology-lab CMM or roundness tester. Standard shop-floor CMM handles ±0.05 mm comfortably. Ultra-tight tolerances may need temperature soak time and multiple measurements. |
| GD&T complexity | Medium–High | Position, profile, and runout callouts require datum-referenced CMM programs. Composite position or profile of a surface (per ASME Y14.5) adds programming and measurement time. Simple ± dimensions typically take 1–2 min per feature vs. 3–5 min for GD&T callouts. |
| Surface finish verification | Low–Medium | A single Ra check takes 1–3 minutes. Multiple zones or tight Ra specs (<0.4 µm / <16 µin.) may need laboratory-grade profilometry or optical methods. Specify surface finish only where function demands it. |
| Sample size / AQL | Medium | Full inspection (100%) is expensive at volume. Acceptable Quality Level (AQL) sampling per ANSI/ASQ Z1.4 (e.g., Level II, AQL 1.0) inspects a statistical sample. Production lots >50 parts typically use AQL sampling. |
| FAI requirement | Medium | A full FAI per AS9102 on a moderately complex part (30–50 characteristics) typically adds $200–$800 to the first article. This is a one-time cost amortized over the production run. Partial FAI (delta) for rev changes is less. |
| CT scanning | Very High | Industrial CT costs $200–$2,000+ per scan depending on part size and resolution. Justified for internal-feature verification (AM parts, castings), porosity analysis, or when sectioning would destroy the part. |
Cost optimization tips
- Mark critical dimensions on the drawing — inspect only those by CMM; verify non-critical with hand gages.
- Use go/no-go gages for holes and threads at production volume — 10× faster than CMM.
- Apply AQL sampling (e.g., Level II, AQL 1.0 per ANSI/ASQ Z1.4) instead of 100% inspection for production lots over 50 parts.
- Specify surface finish only where function demands it — unnecessary Ra callouts add measurement time.
- Bundle FAI cost into the first production order — it is amortized over the run.